The Hindu Business Line : Biotechnology: The encoded message

BIOTECHNOLOGY involves the use of information on genetically controlled traits, combined with the technical ability to alter the expression of those traits, to provide enhanced biological organisms, which allow mankind to lessen the constraints imposed by the natural environment. The boundaries that can be pushed back through the use of biotechnology are wide-ranging.

Biotechnology has the potential to heal the sick, prevent illness, extend the lifespan, feed the hungry, reduce environmental damage and replace the consumption of non-renewable resources with renewable ones. As with any new technology, along with the potential benefits, there are also uncertainties. The products of biotechnology may represent risks to the health and the environment.

Modern biotechnology, which had its origin in the 1970s, is comprised of an array of new techniques — genomics, tissue culture, micro-propagation, marker-assisted breeding, gene splicing and transgenics — that allow breeders to selectively modify living organisms, whether it be bacteria or a human being.

The genome is the complete set of instructions of making any living organism, be it a bacteria or a human being. The genome of any individual contains the blueprint for all cellular structures and activities for the lifetime of the organism. It is encoded within a set of molecules called DNA or, in some viruses, RNA.

Scientific breakthroughs in the 1960s generated two ideas that provide the foundation of modern biotechnology. The first is that, as the genetic code is inscribed in molecular terms on DNA, it must be possible to decipher the message.

The terms genetically modified organism (GMO) will be used to mean any organism that has recombinant DNA — that is, it has had DNA transferred to it from another organism. Genetic modification is the process of creating a GMO.

Within species, genetic modifications will be directly identified if differentiation is required. By the end of the 20th century, approximately 100 million acres of GM crops were produced. While commercial production was taking place in 12 countries, 99 per cent of the commercial activity was in three countries — the US, Argentina and Canada (James, 1999).

Soyabean accounted for over half the 1999 global acreage, corn (also known as maize) approximately one quarter and cotton and rapeseed (also known as canola) 10 per cent each. In India, Bt cotton has made some headway. Also production of vegetables has been tried.

First-generation crops are those which improve the efficiency of existing crops. Their primary benefits are agronomic through the reduction of costs of losses. These GM products do not alter output in ways that benefit consumers directly other than the decrease in price that could arise from increased efficiency and possible benefits from reduced chemical use.

`Second generation' (second wave) GM products will be those that alter the final composition of the product in ways that benefit the consumer directly. The primary agronomic benefits of input trait GM crops, such as herbicide-tolerant and pest-resistant varieties, are yield increases and/or a reduction in input usage. Crops genetically engineered to include resistance to specific insects, such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) corn or soybeans, reduce yield losses from pest damage without the need for chemical pesticides.

The resulting agronomic benefits are similar — simplified pest control, reduced soil erosion and yield increases. Yield gains from Bt corn of up to 8 per cent have been estimated.

In the UK, more years of field-testing have shown the herbicide-resistant maize Bayer's Chardon to be safe and kinder to the environment than non-GM maize. Oil-seed and rape will not be grown because they were worse for biodiversity (weed) than conventional strains.

US evidence from 2003 plantings (105 million acres) suggests that it is easy to separate crops and prevent cross-pollination. GM has a positive effect on the birds and insects returning to cotton plantations in the US. GM sugar-beet requires 46 per cent less herbicide than a conventional strain.

Foods that positively enhance health are a small, but rapidly growing, segment of the food industry. `Functional foods' or `nutraceuticals' offer a myriad consumer benefits, from prevention of specific cancers to a reduction in blood cholesterol. While some of these products are produced through conventional means, others are products of biotechnology.

Industrial crops are being genetically engineered to produce pharmaceuticals at a fraction of the cost of industrial production methods.

Canola, for example, has been modified to produce hirudin, a blood anticoagulant. Modification of output traits will facilitate product differentiation, enabling products to be tailored to the needs of different consumer segments. Through biotechnology, the taste of products could be enhanced, for example, producing better-tasting fruit through a slower ripening process.

The different economic circumstances in developing countries create additional potential benefits including production, economic development and health benefits. Crops that can be genetically engineered to increase their drought resistance, disease resistance or pest resistance offer production benefits in the form of increased yields.

Inadequate storage and distribution infrastructure is a perpetual problem in the developing countries, leading to substantial post-harvest losses for perishable commodities. The introduction of genes that delay ripening or spoilage could reduce these losses. These improvements to production and storage offer potential for greater long-run stability in local food supplies.

Given the importance of agriculture to developing country economics, these production benefits can generate tangible economic development benefits. Increased incomes for small farmers from productivity gains are an important means of economic development in poor countries. The introduction of the biotechnology industry into the global economy has focussed attention not only on the potential benefits of biotechnology but also on its potential risks. This has been particularly so in Europe and Asia where initial efforts to introduce the products of biotechnology have met with considerable opposition.

The principal objections to agrifood biotechnology and the work being carried out in other areas of the biotechnology industry are the potential adverse impact they may have on human health, the environment and other production processes. The public's concerns on both the products and the methods of biotechnology with respect to human health are two-fold.

First, there are concerns on the potential for the escape of `bugs' from laboratories which, once in the atmosphere, could multiply and pose a threat to human health. In many countries, the risks from accidental release have been minimised by stringent regulations aimed at limiting the likely occurrence of biohazards. Human error, however, cannot be eliminated and concerns remain.

The second major concern on public health arises from the potential detrimental effects on personal health from consuming products of biotechnology. It is in this area of GM foods that consumer worries have been most widely expressed. The fears expressed in India by environmentalists are:

Adverse effects on incomes of farmers producing crops by traditional method;

The health hazards described above;

The environmental bio-diversity effects of releases of potentially harmful products into the atmosphere

The potential negative externalities that may arise from the release of GMOs into the environment are: First, there may be evolutionary resistance in target organisms. The continuous use of specific herbicides can lead to an increase in the herbicide-resistance weed population.

This is a general problem associated with herbicide use. The resistance to a single herbicide may accelerate the process-of increased resistance in weeds but there is nothing unique to the gene modification technology for this environmental concern. Insects can also evolve to resist toxins such as those produced by Bt and, indeed, there appears to be evidence that some insects are becoming resistant to Bt sprays.

Second, there is the possibility of outcrossing with wild and weedy related plants. Third, there is the possible contamination of `terminator' genes with other domestic crops. These genes can be added to crops to prevent seed germination. If farmers typically retain some of their crop for seed, cross-contamination could have economic consequences, if obtaining commercial replacement seed is more costly. Sterile seeds, however, cannot contaminate the gene pool as the trait cannot be passed on.

(The author is a Chennai-based management consultant.)