India has committed to achieving a 45 per cent reduction in emissions intensity of GDP by 2030, and achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2070. India needs to evaluate all options to lower its emissions footprint. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one such important lever.

Carbon capture and storage refers to extracting carbon dioxide from combustion or industrial process emissions and injecting it into the ground for permanent storage. According to a recent study by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), India has a theoretical carbon storage capacity of 649 Gigatonnes (Gt).

We have four different types of underground geological formations that can be utilised for storing carbon. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs can be injected to increase oil and gas recovery, referred to as Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), and in the process also store some amount of carbon dioxide. Similarly, carbon dioxide can be injected into coal seams for storage and to extract methane (similar to natural gas) for commercial value, referred to as Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBMR). There are also salty mineral water accumulations referred to as saline aquifers and basalt mineral rock formations that can store carbon dioxide underground.

However, these formations could lie under water bodies, agricultural lands, and no-go zones such as reserve forests limiting their access. Applying these constraints, we estimate a capacity of 317 Gt in India – 3 Gt in oil and gas reservoirs and coal formations, 144 Gt in saline aquifers and 170 Gt in basalt. Currently, only 13 countries globally are seriously looking into or using carbon capture and storage.

Indian industry and power sectors are heavily dependent on domestic coal. Transitioning out of coal will take decades given the limited financial resources and green technology access. CCS allows for the gradual reduction of coal usage while still decarbonising the economy. India is also one of the few countries with large onshore basalt formations. CCS in basalt is unique because the carbon dioxide injected underground is converted into solid minerals over time. This almost eliminates the risk of leakage, and post-injection monitoring over long periods can ensure the integrity of the underground geology.

While CCS is a promising solution for decarbonisation, it has not been successful at scale yet and India could face various challenges as well. EOR is the most mature technology, but India has limited potential. While oil, gas and coal formations are well understood due to commercial mining, there is very little information on the saline aquifers and basalt, such as depth, thickness and characteristics of the formations. Additionally, the time taken from exploration to commercial injection can be anywhere between 10 and 20 years for saline aquifers and basalt.

What India can do

First, while EOR is being commercially planned in the coming years, basalt formations should be assessed and explored for potential on priority.

Second, the government can license out acreage for exploitation of basalt and saline aquifer formations similar to oil and gas today, which will not only generate revenue but also spur CCS projects. India should also consider allowing for storage of other countries’ carbon dioxide in our basalt formations.

Third, the regulatory authorities need to identify and develop standards and regulations to speed up approval of CCS exploratory, pilot and commercial projects. And finally, the Department of Science and Technology should build a collaborative network domestically and connect with international bodies for knowledge transfer and sharing of experience.

To tap the vast potential for decarbonisation through CCS, creative business models and speedy action are necessary.

Mallya is a Fellow and Yadav is a Programme Lead at the Council on Energy Environment and Water

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